SCM PepsiCo Essay Example for Free

SCM PepsiCo Essay The Beverage Industry is a full grown segment and incorporates organizations that advertise nonalcoholic and alcoholic things. Since development openings are not many contrasted with existing business, numerous individuals from the business attempt to enhance their contributions to all the more likely contend and addition share. As well, they may seek after rewarding conveyance game plans and additionally acquisitions to grow their activities, item portfolios, and geographic reach. Most values in this gathering are appropriate for moderate financial specialists. The biggest organizations offer dependable profits, with normal increments, or more normal Stock Price Stability. There are a couple of determinations for those that are increasingly bold. Such issues may serve a specific market specialty, for instance, caffeinated beverages or growing abroad markets. For the most part, the gathering turns in a consistent exhibition all through the business cycle, yet it will by and large endure in the most unpleasant of financial occasions PepsiCo is one of the biggest food and refreshment organizations on the planet. Its items incorporate an assortment of salty, sweet, and grain-based tidbits just as Csds and non-Csds. the organization is liable for the assembling, promoting, and deals of these products. It has 18 brands in its portfolio and is headquartered in New York. PepsiCo has two divisions: bottle sodas and juice fragment. In India the utilization extent of the two divisions are acceptable as contrast with the significant contender. PepsiCo have put around 12000 crore in India and has the a large portion of the piece of the pie in India in drinks industry. Mr. Anil R the Senior Manager of the composed exchange handles the significant zone of Bangalore. His jobs are to see the best possible working in composed exchange and to bring new business. OT has significant territory like cafés, bars, Cineplex diversion, visitor region, and other significant zone of people’s needs. He was baffled by the business disappointment which done by PSR. Mr. Anil R, has seen in the shocked visit of 20 outlets over the Bangalore is that the administrative of the pre deals official isn't ordinary and they are not taking up the request from the clients time to time, not posting up the grievance of the client which they are confronting or more that they are not getting together the objective which they are proposed. Additionally what Anil found that the VISI cooler is likewise abused by the costumer, they put various stuffs in the costumer with other organization refreshments bottle. Anil found that these little looking issues have a major disappointment in future since it looses the costumer as well as the income will diminish and for this he got the opportunity to answer his most noteworthy position. Taking the whole serious issue on account and to the thought Anil has begun the preparation procedure and genuinely necessary to his PSR Mr. Prajapati and to Mr. Shail Sharma. The 7 days preparing comprises of relational abilities, conduct aptitudes about the item with clear detail and other significant properties in regards to consumer loyalty. Anil just accentuations on the consumer loyalty, he not just taught his PSR about the administrative visits to take the request yet additionally he educated about the PepsiCo duty towards the costumer and about VISI cooler he likewise trained. For all these he has given stick guidance for his PSR to catch up the great work whenever got disappointment may lose the employment. After accepting the activity, Anil does a Market look into and thought about the report on client response. He found that Prajapati was well over the normal for its costumer. As it were, Prajapati keep up the great relations with its costumer. On the other Shail stills falling behind the exhibition. Anil’s end is that Prajapati is performing great over the normal level yet stills it’s not the up to the company’s perspective. Shail still face the disappointment. He neglects to welcome the significance of relationship. At his first deals meeting as ranking director Anil went over the money related information that exhibited the amount more costly is to gain new costumers than its present ones yet we are losing even our current once. Prajapati has 2 years of work involvement with PepsiCo while Shail has 4 years of involvement with the PepsiCo as PSR. Questions: 1 What strategy should Anil follow with respect to PSR working Condition? 2 Should he recruit new PSR? 3 Do you figure Anil accomplishing a decent work to give preparing program?

The Genetics Of Food Crops Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Genetics Of Food Crops - Essay Example Initially there is unexpected mischief to different living beings (Such as how different creatures will respond to altered dusts that different life forms eat). Also, there is the decreased adequacy of pesticides to the extent that plants that have been changed to be vermin safe may help the insusceptible arrangement of bugs so they are less influenced by conventional pesticides. Thirdly there is the unintended quality exchange to different species which means cross-fertilization with non-hereditarily changed plants. As a fourth point, there is the danger of expanded unfavorably susceptible reaction to hereditarily adjusted yields. One extra point is the obscure long haul consequences for human wellbeing lastly, there are financial concerns related with huge new modest yields that may swarm out customary food crop producers. With every one of these focuses in thought, one must comprehend that every one of these reactions make no difference to someone that is starving to death. Indivi duals who are devastated depend vigorously on cheap food crops. On the off chance that enhancements can be made to build food yield, wholesome yield or diminish costs related with developing food than it might be useful to the individuals who might best gain by this item. As a last point if Norman Borlaug had never made the hereditary upgrades to our oat crops than as per the American Council on Science and Health (2007) that it is assessed that over a billion people would have starved to death. For his commitment, Borlaug was granted both the Nobel Peace Prize and the Congressional Medal of Honor.

Using HR Essay Samples to Get Better Writing

<h1>Using HR Essay Samples to Get Better Writing</h1><p>There are various organizations who offer you test HR papers, therefore helping you think of a serious one yourself. One thing you ought to recollect is that the nature of these examples may not be in the same class as your own.</p><p></p><p>This implies that there are chances that the exposition tests that you see on the web probably won't be excellent. The way that it might be obsolete is another issue. It is consistently a smart thought to check if the paper tests that you are seeing are truly from genuine organizations that have been around for a while.</p><p></p><p>A parcel of the article tests that you will see on the web and those that you traverse your email probably won't be the best. Truth be told, a significant number of them are ineffectively composed. What you have to do is be certain that the examples that you are utilizing are from an organization t hat has a great deal of involvement with this field.</p><p></p><p>There are many journalists who might be recruited to make a particular kind of article for a specific organization. This is the reason you will find that you have to pick cautiously in the event that you need to ensure that you employ the best. This is on the grounds that you need to get something that can assist you with ascending to the highest point of the corporate ladder.</p><p></p><p>You need to realize that there is nothing of the sort as the ideal article for a specific organization. While they may work superbly making articles, you will find that they could generally utilize some improvement. These will at that point be submitted to various organizations and offered for various positions.</p><p></p><p>One of the best things that you can do is look at the paper tests that have been made by the best journalists. This will assist you with ge tting the absolute best bits of composing that can be found anyplace. This implies you will likewise wind up with the best paper that you can ever compose. It will likewise be imperative to search for the name of the first creator. This will permit you to be certain that you will get probably the most ideal work. Perhaps the best thing about getting the first composing is that you will have the option to discover what sort of value is available in the piece.</p><p></p><p>There are numerous HR article tests that can be discovered on the web. Some of them are acceptable while others are poor. It is significant that you set aside the effort to ensure that you locate the best ones with the goal that you can get some incredible writing.</p>

Centennial College Essay Topics - Helpful Information

<h1>Centennial College Essay Topics - Helpful Information</h1><p>You can't put the Centennial College Scholarship on your application since it will show up as an expansion of your application. Your administrative work is sent in to the College Advisor to get your grant and you will get warning when a choice is made on your application. So for as far back as five years, the Centennial College Scholarship has been accessible to the individuals who do have great work.</p><p></p><p>The exposition subjects for this grant are genuinely wide extending. Every year we offer two Centennial College Essay Topics for the general exposition area of your application. The Centennial College papers regularly spread issues that we share for all intents and purpose. These incorporate science and instruction, since we as a whole love science.</p><p></p><p>We show our understudies to think basically, which implies they frequently invest mo re energy contemplating a specific subject than their friends in different classes. In the event that you have enthusiasm for science and you need to compose an extraordinary Centennial College paper, you should initially comprehend why science is so critical to us. We like to believe that training assists youngsters with seeing how the world functions and how it influences them.</p><p></p><p>Our kids are additionally engaged with a wide range of science tests. On the off chance that you like science, you ought to consider presenting a science paper. This point will assist you with demonstrating your capacity to consider new ideas. It is very conceivable that you will be called upon to remark on a particular science test and this experience can move you to discover better approaches to investigate.</p><p></p><p>Astronomy can be a troublesome liable to expound on. Numerous understudies at Centennial College simply don't get what it is a bout. One approach to conquer this is to take a gander at our understudy paper to discover what understudies are doing with their life and with their science information. There are various clubs and associations that attention on space science. You can go along with one of these clubs and become a piece of mainstream researchers at Centennial College.</p><p></p><p>Science is likewise a genuine subject for youngsters. This is particularly valid for the more youthful ones. They appreciate building robots and playing with science units. At the point when your paper talks about these undertakings and how they fit into your life, it is an unmistakable sign that you are keen on making a difference.</p><p></p><p>Other Centennial College Essay Topics include: English, Math, Business, Communication, and English. Truth be told, the school is likewise an English major, and the school has a ton of exercises and research ventures based on English a nd different subjects. Correspondence is a significant subject also. On the off chance that you discover you have an enthusiasm for correspondence, consider composing a Centennial College exposition about this topic.</p><p></p><p>When you are prepared to apply for the Centennial College Essay Topics that is accessible every year, you have to see how they work. Understudies need to know the prerequisites of their program. They should likewise know the kinds of papers they can anticipate. On the off chance that you pick one of the Centennial College Essay Topics, you should follow these rules so as to be qualified to present your application.</p>

ESL Using Adjectives and Prepositions in Sentences

Custom Writing Trustpilot Will Help You Do What You Want

<h1>Custom Writing Trustpilot Will Help You Do What You Want</h1><p>A trustpilot administration is an organization that makes it simple for those with no business and constrained accounts to construct an effective, huge scope business. With trustpilot, you can start your excursion toward accomplishing the fantasies you have constantly needed in the blink of an eye by any stretch of the imagination. The administrations accessible through this organization are intended to assist you with setting up the correct structure and calendar that will make you push toward your objectives rapidly and without any problem. You should simply contact trustpilot, begin with a rundown of subjects that you need to cover and have them formed into modified administrations that can be given to you.</p><p></p><p>The bolster you will get through custom composing trustpilot can represent the deciding moment your endeavors. Actually, your prosperity with the venture w ill rely enormously upon the counsel you get from trustpilot. Trustpilot can assist you with building up a lot of trust in your capacity to compose a topic for your business. You will at that point have the option to transform these proposals into a total composing bundle for your business that will take you from idea to launch.</p><p></p><p>One of the most significant key parts that will assist you with taking your thought and transform it into a the truth is promoting. By utilizing the administrations offered by custom composing trustpilot, you will have the option to contact your potential customers and clarify the advantages of working with your organization. Your planned customers will have a superior comprehension of what your business brings to the table and may likewise be spurred to pick in to get refreshes about your most recent plans.</p><p></p><p>When it comes to items and new items that you might need to present, your poss ibilities will profit by having the chance to find out about your organization and administrations. The upside of having these thoughts all set is that they will be fit to be introduced such that will permit individuals to appreciate these thoughts. This allows your organization to be recognized as a brand that is based on the nature of its items and isn't only a name you put on all that you do.</p><p></p><p>When you engage with composing trustpilot, you will find that there are numerous advantages to the procedure. Most importantly, trustpilot is continually developing and improving their site to guarantee that everybody approaches valuable and point by point data about their administrations. That implies that by making the progress from subject to an item to support, you will likewise have a lot of data to settle on the best choices possible.</p><p></p><p>When you choose to compose trustpilot, it is anything but difficult to perceive any reason why this organization is such an incredible asset for those hoping to begin a business. You will have the option to impart your plans to the individuals who need to utilize them quickly and have the chance to start showcasing these plans to other people. With this degree of customization, your arrangement can even have a more expert look than you initially imagined.</p><p></p><p>A organization, for example, trustpilot can really assist you with arriving at your objectives. With the assistance of custom composing trustpilot, you will have the option to arrive at an unheard of level of accomplishment just as make a brand that will be the discussion of the town.</p>

The Federalist Papers - Article II - The Electoral College

<h1>The Federalist Papers - Article II - The Electoral College</h1><p>While there is no genuine motivation to call the discretionary school ill-conceived, the appointment of the president through a House and Senate political decision framework is profoundly defective. A few preservationists contend that the discretionary school is an issue since it keeps the well known vote champ from turning into the genuine president.</p><p></p><p>The contention from this is the constituent school is anything but a by right framework; the mainstream vote victor turns into the president on the off chance that he wins. The way this isn't the situation doesn't legitimize the execution of an adjustment in the Electoral College. There are two frameworks set up. A protected framework where we choose the president by a vote in Congress and afterward the Senate designates the VP and different workplaces on a revolution, just as selecting the national authorities an d the Supreme Court Justices.</p><p></p><p>The framework is instituted to guarantee that each place of Congress would not have the option to control the administration and keep it from running easily. This is the reason it is known as a 'by law' framework. In the event that one place of Congress controls the procedure of the appointment of the president, at that point it will never fill in just as the others. The House is enabled to choose the president, however it can't control the procedure since it isn't permitted to make the decision.</p><p></p><p>If you don't have a Republican controlled House, the Senate would have the option to control the procedure. It could abrogate the constituent school or name the presidential competitor as per its impulse. Be that as it may, this is unimaginable in our present framework. The state lawmaking bodies can't usurp the force that is held to the individuals of the United States.</p><p> ;</p><p>The issue of the discretionary school is essentially a discussion about how to choose the president. Some think it isn't right to make the political decision dependent on the constituent vote while others state that the appointive school isn't generally ill-conceived in light of the fact that the champ of the well known vote is the president. There is no set in stone answer here.</p><p></p><p>Some individuals state that it is ideal to choose the president by the manner in which congresspersons vote than the manner in which they are chosen. For instance, the individuals who live in New York and Washington would decide in favor of the New York congressperson in a Senate political decision. In this way, if the champ of the discretionary vote is anything but a New York congressperson, the New York Senate would have no capacity to pick a president. This is an admirable statement and there would not be any requirement for a Constitutional change to expel the constituent school from the United States.</p><p></p><p>Some individuals contend that the federalists needed to expel the appointive school from the United States since it doesn't have a place there, in any case, this is a bogus contention in light of the fact that the first designers of the Constitution needed the discretionary school. Actually, they even said that the 'discretionary school is a piece of the administration which gets its forces from the assent of the states.' The federalists needed to make the political decision free and reasonable; they needed to have more votes for the well known vote champ and less decisions in favor of state governments. They didn't need a lord or queen.</p><p></p><p>Therefore, while the facts demonstrate that a few Republicans may feel like the constituent school is defective, it isn't directly for the Republicans to call the framework undemocratic. They simply need another framewor k that functions admirably for the United States and this is a reasonable interest. The main problem is the manner in which the political race was done in any case. On the off chance that we would have had a real majority rule government, the outcomes would be much different.</p>

How To Select The Best College Essay Writer

<h1>How To Select The Best College Essay Writer</h1><p>College paper composing is actually a trial of somebody's emotional well-being. Having elegantly composed expositions with mind and inventiveness can open up a ton of ways to better professions, yet it is likewise evident that on the off chance that you are not intellectually stable enough, you may get dispensed with from this open door due to the cruelty of the exams.</p><p></p><p>Having to compose a school article and meet its pressure needs the assistance of a school paper essayist. There are various schools where this is done all the time, and a decent one will have the option to locate the best school article help at no expense. On occasion, understudies need to present a ton of papers in limited capacity to focus time, and a decent article author can keep their mental soundness intact.</p><p></p><p>If you are keen on seeking after a profession as a school exp osition essayist, first you have to pick the correct school or college where you will gain proficiency with the abilities to progress nicely. Here, it is very fundamental that you discover a school where you will be presented to composing assignments for a long time, since it will help you regarding control, precision and comprehension of the world's standards.</p><p></p><p>A school exposition essayist, in spite of the fact that they may not be well known, has numerous long periods of experience and needs to experience thorough preparing before they can start work. The person must be knowledgeable about all parts of composing, and their measures ought to be well over the rest.</p><p></p><p>After picking a school to learn at, it is important to consider what sort of school article you might want to study, and whether it is a straight forward one or in the event that it has a few turns. Probably the most exploratory writing on the planet is absent from college prospectuses, and on the off chance that you need to get an opportunity to compose that sort of article, you have to examine the sort you like best.</p><p></p><p>The incredible thing about this kind of composing is that it requires the most expert essayists, just as the sharpest understudies. You may need to concentrate with an ace who is an ace in a specific type, yet at long last, the educational program will assist you with understanding your qualities. For instance, in the event that you are acceptable in publicizing, you may concentrate on utilizing language to clarify everything in an exact manner.</p><p></p><p>A school article is especially significant, and on the off chance that you are not kidding about considering it, you need to pick a school where you will figure out how to do well in the subject. It is better in the event that you realize that with a little help, you will get an opportunity to compo se a piece that isn't just imaginative, however has a solid passion.</p>

Selecting a Good Subject for a Descriptive Essay Topic

<h1>Selecting a Good Subject for a Descriptive Essay Topic</h1><p>There are various elucidating exposition points for college understudies. It truly relies upon what the understudy's school or division is searching for and whether they can compose the paper dependent on their insight into the topic. For instance, if the point is general like, 'The subsequent stages towards superior instruction' that may be sufficient for somebody who knows practically nothing about schools, however would not be useful for somebody who is attempting to get a temporary position in this area.</p><p></p><p>One of the most widely recognized distinct exposition subjects for college understudies is about a character, individual, idea, or occasion from history. For instance, a theoretical review of the U.S. history is an extraordinary theme for the school senior. The understudy can look into on the point by perusing different course readings regarding this matter and inquiring about on the web. This allows the understudy to discuss any single occasion that is a piece of the foundation of the U.S. The individual in question can peruse other understudy's reactions to the inquiry and pose to different inquiries regarding the occasion, including how much time or cash was spent on it, and what the response was to the occasion from the individuals involved.</p><p></p><p>Students get the opportunity to expound on true situations also. Expounding on certifiable circumstances, for example, the Fall of the Roman Empire is significant. This is on the grounds that this timespan is extremely pertinent to the time of study.</p><p></p><p>If the understudy wishes to accomplish something other than talk about oneself then they ought to invest energy finding out about the history and the individuals and things that improved the world a spot. This would incorporate talking about significant themes like American subj ugation, Native Americans, the social liberties development, and others.</p><p></p><p>One of the best sorts of illustrative paper points for college understudies is where they examine things like tunes and creators. A few schools give the understudy a rundown of books to look over and even have a short poll to finish asking them to goon an internet searcher and locate the most fitting tunes or writers. This allows the understudy to have a variety of thoughts to impart to their schoolmates. This assists with the subject choice since certain thoughts may be unreasonably dark for the normal person.</p><p></p><p>It may not generally be applicable to the course being taken at the school, yet it might be fascinating to perceive what else is out there on the planet. One genuine model is the field of PCs. Understudies who need to remain side by side of innovation might need to attempt to compose a paper about an ongoing item dispatch or framew ork they have used.</p><p></p><p>The opportunities for topic, theme, and composing styles are boundless. Everything relies upon the understudy's degree of intrigue, their ability to compose, and obviously, the school or division the person in question is applying to. This will permit the understudy to discover a point that will speak to the professor.</p>

Want to Know More About Essay Topics Mth?

<h1>Want to Know More About Essay Topics Mth? </h1> <p>Even in case you're a pro in a specific field, don't be hesitant to utilize and refer to outer sources. There are a few stages which you should take to have the option to form a model paper. So right away, beneath are some viable composing tips to make your normal application article stick out! Whatever the case, endeavor to make an exposition completely all alone with no assistance. </p> <h2>The Downside Risk of Essay Topics Mth </h2> <p>As a model, in school, you may be mentioned to make a paper from the contradicting point of view. Application papers about difficulties uncover how you react to trouble to people who are truly intrigued by how you'll deal with the ensuing four years completely all alone. The accomplishment of an examination paper for the most part is reliant upon the point, which is the reason a significant number of time is spent looking for the best research paper them es for understudies. Since you can see, a few of the themes recorded are new and tackle the ongoing issues occurring in the World today. </p> <h2>Life After Essay Topics Mth </h2> <p>If you're feeling certain about your paper composing capacities, you can definitely stretch out into longer and progressively expand articles. On occasion you may require some master help with factious article points. Pugnacious articles are a couple of as well as can be expected compose as an understudy. On the off chance that you haven't been given a brief to expound on, you need to deliver your own fascinating imaginative expositions. </p> <p>There are a few powerful article themes to pick from to complete your secondary school or school task. By acclimating yourself with them, you may even be fit for utilizing practice materials for the old SAT viably to prepare for the present-day SAT. </p> <p>The possibly rule to follow while choosing a theme for your school article is to pick the point you're anxious to expound on. The school article is among the most fundamental aspects of your school application. It's in this way critical to altogether consider distinctive school article subjects. In case you're searching for school exposition models, here's an extraordinary one below.</p> <p>If when you are setting up a report you simply break down explicit writing, the paper requests a phenomenal infiltration into the issue. Educational program proposition subjects is a way to attempt. F. Bacon The primary goal of the capital isn't to get however much cash as could reasonably be expected, yet to ensure that cash creates a superior life. D. Try not to attempt gives that you haven't seen previously. </p> <h2> The True Meaning of Essay Topics Mth</h2> <p>You may see that few of the previously mentioned issue types state they require a few act ivities to address. On the off chance that an issue has more than 1 answer, it isn't substantial. A supportive way to deal with a difficult issue is to scan for a comparative issue, despite the fact that it can have an alternate answer. Try not to disregard to clarify why the issue is significant to you!</p> <p>So, there's no solution for that particular inquiry. Moving along without any more information, it is highly unlikely to build up whether the two arrangements are legitimate for a particular issue. The exact procedure used to fathom less difficult, comparative issues is essentially never used to fix the more difficult issues. On the off chance that there aren't any less complex issues, the inquiry doesn't have any arrangement. </p> <h2>The Fundamentals of Essay Topics Mth That You Will have the option to Learn From Beginning Immediately </h2> <p>Although you're simply starting to create articles, you shouldn't battle endeavoring to create something to talk about. At the very same time, it's a fabulous powerful paper thought. Begin inquiring about, and start composing! Simply take the time currently to peruse more on the subject of enticing composition. </p>

Research Paper Writing Companies

<h1>Research Paper Writing Companies</h1><p>Many times, understudies can make some troublesome memories in building up their own exploration paper. They ought not feel as if they are separated from everyone else. An extraordinary number of people work in a similar research association as them and will frequently have the option to give genuinely necessary help.</p><p></p><p>Writing organizations come in all sizes and can give customers a wide scope of administrations. Not all composing organizations offer similar administrations. Some have practical experience in look into paper composing, while others center around explicit themes inside the control of composing. It is significant that understudies realize which organizations are most appropriate for their needs.</p><p></p><p>Many composing organizations will have singular authors who have some expertise recorded as a hard copy around the particular needs of an organi zation. This can assist understudies with monitoring what sort of composing administration they should search for. A composing organization that centers principally around looking into a particular subject can be a decent option in contrast to one that researches over the board.</p><p></p><p>Writing organizations can give extra research benefits through extra undertakings for understudies. Some composing organizations will permit understudies to finish different tasks all through the undertaking procedure. These can be extremely useful in giving a modest quantity of additional advantage to students.</p><p></p><p>Some composing organizations will permit understudies to take a web based composing test that will contrast understudies with different representatives. Understudies should investigate the composing test supplier and become familiar with the test and what data is accumulated. Understudies ought to likewise know about what is be ing accumulated in the test.</p><p></p><p>Other composing organizations will permit understudies to help build up a specific venture. The vast majority of these organizations will permit understudies to alter and reexamine a task before it is turned in. Some composing organizations will permit understudies to turn into a real individual from the composing group and aid the day by day tasks of the project.</p><p></p><p>Many composing organizations will permit understudies to become familiar with extra abilities that can be valuable in future ventures. Understudies ought to do some examination to decide whether the composing organization offers any classes specifically zones of the composing business. The capacity to compose ventures for explicit undertakings can likewise give a significant experience.</p><p></p><p>It is significant that understudies inquire about composing organizations before turning into an ind ividual from the composing group. Understudies should initially distinguish on the off chance that they need to be associated with the creative cycle. On the off chance that they do, they should audit the measure of subsidizing they can offer students.</p>

Preparing Your Own Essay Outline

<h1>Preparing Your Own Essay Outline</h1><p>Preparing an article is one of the most significant and troublesome undertakings that an understudy must do so as to move on from secondary school. By setting up your own article layout you will find that you will have the option to settle on your own decisions about what you need to remember for your exposition. This can be very precarious, particularly since there are a wide range of approaches to doing it. Here are a few things that you should search for when you set up your own outline.</p><p></p><p>First, you have to figure out what is viewed as a standard arrangement for composing an article. A few people feel that it is fundamental to incorporate a rundown of themes toward the finish of your article. While this is a generally excellent thought, it isn't required.</p><p></p><p>Instead, similarly as long as you have incorporated your own contemplations about every theme, regardless of whether they are close to home scholastic, or whatever else, you ought to have the option to compose your own exposition plot with no type of a rundown. You simply need to concentrate on giving a brief argument.</p><p></p><p>Next, consider the following two inquiries that you have to pose to yourself. The first is, is there going to be anything in your article that is truthfully correct?</p><p></p><p>The answer to this inquiry is truly, there will be things that are really right in your exposition. The other thing that you have to ask yourself is how would you bolster this reality? What might you do in the event that you were the instructor who evaluated your essay?</p><p></p><p>While it might be conceivable to pull off wrong data, a great deal of times understudies think of their own suppositions that are bolstered by realities and things that occurred in their lives. By being cautious about what you remember for your paper, you will have the option to show how well you know the realities that you use in your writing.</p><p></p><p>So, when you are setting up your own layout, you should remember every one of these things. All things considered, what will be will be; you will learn and you should learn it while you are writing.</p>

Creative Essay Topics - Your Best Solution

<h1>Creative Essay Topics - Your Best Solution</h1><p>Writing an innovative exposition subject is something that numerous understudies battle with. The way toward concocting a unique theme isn't as simple as it might appear. At the point when understudies are battling with composing articles, they customarily forget about the objective and resort to subject material that is exceptionally recognizable to them.</p><p></p><p>Students are acquainted with themes that they know about, regardless of whether it be recent developments, legislative issues, science, and so on. The main thing new about the subject is the idea driving it. For instance, if understudies are composing an article on how the economy impacts our social portability they may find that subjects that are more connected with this point, for example, brain research, humanism, financial aspects, and so on would not be fitting to expound on in their essay.</p><p></p>& lt;p>While there are some paper themes that must be one of a kind to make an extremely solid exposition. Innovative article subjects can emerge out of practically any point that you can consider. These points could be whatever would intrigue you or in any event, something that you have quite recently perused recently.</p><p></p><p>Students can take a gander at various classifications that the subject falls under. These incorporate good, physical, moral, and scholastic. The assignment of concocting a paper theme that is one of a kind will require a lot of thinking.</p><p></p><p>The point that we saw as the most trying for understudies was the ethical subject. The understudies generally would put their ethical supposition onto the theme without thinking about its effect on the world. For instance, understudies can compose a paper on the benefits of sending individuals to jail when they have damaged the law. Understudies would then be able to proceed to compose an article on how condemning change needs to occur so as to address the wrongs done by our nation's criminal equity system.</p><p></p><p>By participating in a point, for example, this, understudies intermittently forget about the entirety of the moral and good contention since they didn't place any idea into it. They depended on what they had gained from their group addresses. By participating in a point, for example, this, understudies generally wind up making a poor contention by excluding all the vital subtleties expected to help their argument.</p><p></p><p>By composing an innovative paper subject that depends on their own ethics, understudies can persuade themselves regarding the legitimacy of their contention by putting a more noteworthy incentive on it. Fundamentally, by doing this they are really demonstrating to themselves that they have a solid good belief.</p><p></p><p>When it goes to the scholastic subject, understudies should attempt to be as precise as conceivable in their task. To do this they should just reference sources that are solid. On the off chance that their realities are not exact they will in all likelihood bomb their task and they don't need that.</p>

The 5-Minute Rule for Topics for Law Research Papers

<h1> The 5-Minute Rule for Topics for Law Research Papers</h1> <h2>Who Else Wants to Learn About Topics for Law Research Papers? </h2> <p>If you're thinking about how might this benefit you, this is what you will see from solid scholarly authors. You should uncover the perusers that you ace of this issue and not a confounded amateur who doesn't comprehend what the person in question alluding to. Regardless of whether a particular research paper point is getting a lot of buzz as of now or others appear to be keen on expounding on it, don't feel enticed to make it your subject on the off chance that you don't really have an enthusiasm for it too. In case you're permitted to openly pick what things to compose completely all alone, use the opportunity to make something remarkable. </p> <p>It isn't vital that each NUJS working paper' ought to be trailed by methods for a distribution in a refereed production, despite the fact that it is alluring. O n the off chance that the subject is excessively tight, you may think that its hard to get the suitable writing. Rivalry seems to become progressively increasingly overwhelming among the scholastics. </p> <h2> Life, Death and Topics for Law Research Papers </h2> <p>Writing an exploration paper despite the fact that may seem testing is an impressive part of ordinary understudy life. You can make your examination working simpler via completing a comprehensive arrangement. Composing a superb point will be the specific first thing you're anticipated to do by the teacher. Not all exploration paper themes are made equivalent, and you might want to guarantee you select a brilliant subject before you begin composing. </p> <h2>The Topics for Law Research Papers Trap </h2> <p>Choosing fitting methodologies for examination is basic in light of the fact that questionable techniques will cause untrustworthy results. The theme you select should pull in the peruser's consideration, notwithstanding merit focuses for you to get a high evaluation for your composing abilities. The contrast between a conventional and captivating subject is sufficiently huge to justify some additional focuses for your work. It is sufficiently large to justify some additional focuses for business work. </p> <p>You can propose the procedures to upgrade the activity of licensed innovation law. You'll discover current arrangements really manage matter of criminal disappointment. Unfortunately, however the law is among the most dubious subjects on the off chance that you should keep the crowd in question. The essential purposes behind language hindrances. </p> <h2>What You Should Do About Topics for Law Research Papers Starting in the Next 2 Minutes </h2> <p>At times, the method for composing your organization law research may get testing since you don't have abundant second. In the event that you should compose just 1 paper at the finish of the period, you can inhale out since you are honored. For it to happen you will require a fascinating point for your organization law examine paper. The generally excellent business about a business law inquire about paper is that there are a ton of assorted areas which you can consider. </p> <p>Everybody realizing that you get help by methods for your paper can be very irritating. A paper is constantly less complex to compose in case you're keen regarding the matter, and you will be increasingly roused to do top to bottom research and make a paper that truly covers the full subject. Avoid these errors to deliver your exploration paper extremely splendid! The more you completely handle the easier it's for you to make a flourishing examination paper. </p> <h2>What You Don't Know About Topics for Law Research Papers </h2> <p>Now you get a fabulous understanding what perspectives to consider while picking a point for your exami nation paper with the goal that it's a great opportunity to find a decent one. Such an energetic and dynamic field is probably going to make some astounding examination questions. In case you're mistaken for a choice of fascinating themes to inquire about on the web, it's obviously better to figure out what intrigues you the most. Portray the similitudes and contrasts between both codes.</p> <p>Once you have a thought of what you might want to expound on, guarantee that your point is neither wide nor limited. Remember that every single section should have a subject sentence. There are occurrences when you're allocated to the theme yet more as often as possible, you'll need to make a point all alone. There are cases when you're doled out with the theme yet more every now and again, you should make a subject all alone. </p> <p>If in the wake of investigating graduate school article tests you figure you can't manage the paper all alone, simply realize that it's a common inclination for some. It's conceivable to discover all the more with respect to understudies' research papers here. The graduate school exposition models that were given will manage you when you are keen on someone to make my article. Since a great deal of the papers given are typically protracted it's conceivable with the end goal for it to negatively affect the life expectancy of the understudy. </p> <p>Though you're composing a graduate school exposition, you ought to recollect that a ton of the guidelines apply at whatever point you are composing any kind of paper. Getting into school in the current age won't simply expect you to document your transcripts and authentications. At the point when you own an issue composing your graduate school individual proclamation papers, demand help. </p>

Learn the Best Research Paper Topics With Questionnaire

<h1>Learn the Best Research Paper Topics With Questionnaire</h1><p>The themes for your examination paper and the exploration addresses that you have to answer is a significant advance in arranging and planning for your last draft. Research Paper Topics With Questionnaire can assist you with going above and beyond, ensuring that the inquiries are as sensible as possible.</p><p></p><p>When you begin composing an examination paper it's exceptionally simple to begin on themes, thoughts, and in any event, composing the exploration addresses that you should reply. Numerous journalists lose trace of what's most important, as they may have thoughts in their mind about things that could be utilized in their exploration. Also, some may feel that it's not yet time to really begin composing their examination paper, so they simply abstain from thinking of them altogether.</p><p></p><p>You can dodge whenever squandering by beginning by guaranteeing that your exploration paper subjects and questions are sensible. Have at the top of the priority list that the principle reason for doing research papers is to pick up information about explicit things. In that capacity, you have to locate the most widely recognized utilization of the things that you're examining and make a poll about that.</p><p></p><p>Once you have your subject set up, you can start composing your examination paper points with survey. Yet, you have to guarantee that the theme is one that is something that you will discover use for when you've completed your examination paper. For instance, on the off chance that you are exploring about the manner in which creepy crawlies eat their nourishment, at that point an examination question like 'How do bugs eat their nourishment' will in all likelihood not be very relevant.</p><p></p><p>Another interesting point when you begin composing your exploration paper subjects with survey is whether you have to work with a specific gathering of individuals or not. A few analysts may need to talk with others to figure out what data is material to them. Others may need to examine their discoveries with others so as to perceive what impact the aftereffects of their examination have had on other people.</p><p></p><p>If you do wind up working with a wide range of gatherings, you have to guarantee that your exploration paper themes and questions are ones that will assist you with picking up information from the specialists in that bunch too. For instance, in the event that you're exploring about the impact of wind on crops, at that point an examination question like 'Are there any useful impacts of wind on crop development?' may not be very relevant.</p><p></p><p>Other factors that you have to remember when you're composing your exploration paper themes with poll are to what extent you have to spend comp osing the examination paper, what the extent of the task is, and what the focal point of the undertaking is. Each exploration paper subject has its own center, so you need to guarantee that you're finding a theme that is applicable to the sort of task that you're dealing with. On the off chance that your exploration paper subjects and questions are not explicit enough to what you're examining, at that point you should set aside some effort to compose another arrangement of research paper themes with questionnaire.</p><p></p><p>By setting aside some effort to design out your examination paper themes with the survey, you can ensure that you'll go a lot further towards the wrapped item than just getting any subject that comes your direction. Since you can get counsel and thoughts from others in your field, you can guarantee that you're making an article that will assist you with picking up information from specialists in the field. An examination paper can be on e of the most significant devices that you need to assist you with your career.</p>

Essay about Analysis of an Extract from William...

Analysis of an Extract from William Shakespeares Othello In the play Othello, four characters are murdered. The character Iago, who manipulated certain characters into wanting to kill them. Desdemona, Emilia, Othello, and Roderigo, are killed. Iago originally did this out of jealousy of Othello and Roderigo. The deaths of these four characters were inevitable. There was justice in this play for all of the characters who were involved in the killing of the four characters. Act V Scene II in many ways represents the emotional climax of the play. The events which have preceded this point have led Othello to the decision to kill his beautiful wife Desdemona. The major themes of this act are†¦show more content†¦The sight of Desdemona lining asleep makes it even more difficult for Othello to commit her murder. Shakespeare makes expert uses of simile to paint a picture of pristine beauty and innocence whiter skin of hers than snow. This creates an image of a snow covered landscape unspoiled by any signs of life. This whiteness is also representative to innocent in a similar manner to a bride on her wedding day. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦smooth as monumental alabaster creates the image of unblemished innocence. Shakespeare is successful through the use of these similes in creating in the readers mind the idea of innocence asleep on the bed. We understand why Othello struggles with the felling of love and hate. Yet she must die Shakespeare makes use of constructs to jolt the reader out of the revelry of innocence. These words seem very harsh and bring back to us the reality of what Othello has come to do. Othello wishes to restore Desdemona to the pedestal on which he had put her by killing her Othello thought only the memory of her former purity would remain. Having destroyed her physical body he felt would detach her from her physical sin that he though she was guilty of Shakespeare makes interesting use of metaphor. He refers to Desdemona asShow MoreRelatedThe Obsessive Nature Of The Love Felt By Othello, By William Shakespeare2617 Words   |  11 Pagesthree texts seem to contain a fundamental principle which acts as a barrier for ‘love’ – whether it be religiously, culturally or evolutionary. Firstly, it is difficult to identify the obsessive nature of the love felt by Othello, at the beginning of William Shakespeare’s Othello, as his love towards Desdemona could be interpreted as ‘agape’ or certainly be seen as unconditional since the couplet persistently demonstrate a meaningful, more philosophical love towards one another. When used by ChristiansRead MoreDuchess Of Malf Open Learn10864 Words   |  44 Pagesplay and will help you to develop your skills of textual analysis. This unit focuses mainly on Acts 1 and 2 of the play. You should make sure that you have read these two acts of the play before you read the unit. The edition of the play that is used in this unit is the Pearson Longman (2009) edition, edited by Monica Kendall. However, there are free versions available online that you may prefer to use. This unit is an adapted extract from the Open University course A230 Reading and studying literatureRead MorePlay Macbeth11979 Words   |  48 Pagesout his ambitious nature, but he struggles with killing the king. By attacking his manhood, Lady Macbeth convinces him to committ the first of his evil deeds. Macbeths evil deed causes him to suffer from fear and guilt, which leads to even more evil crimes. Then Macbeth becomes paranoid, suffering from hallucinations and sleeplessness. He becomes less human as he tries over and over to establish his manhood. His ruthlessness in killing Banquo and Macduffs family shows how perverted his idea of manlinessRead MorePlay Macbeth11985 Words   |  48 Pagesout his ambitious nature, but he struggles with killing the king. By attacking his manhood, Lady Macbeth convinces him to committ the first of his evil deeds. Macbeths evil deed causes him to suffer from fear and guilt, which leads to even more evil crimes. Then Macbeth becomes paranoid, s uffering from hallucinations and sleeplessness. He becomes less human as he tries over and over to establish his manhood. His ruthlessness in killing Banquo and Macduffs family shows how perverted his idea of manlinessRead MoreGp Essay Mainpoints24643 Words   |  99 PagesConnections to a wider spectrum of professionals ( greater insight into issue at hand †¢ E.g. 2008 U.S. Presidential Elections (bloggers provide personal opinions about who was likely to win but New York Times invited experts to do a state-by-state analysis presenting results in a full-page spread, culminating in a detailed map showing states Democrats were likely to win) †¢ Anonymity: given free rein to publish any thought that comes to mind †¢ E.g. For every worthwhile video present on the site

Research Paper Topics For Intermediate Accounting

<h1>Research Paper Topics For Intermediate Accounting</h1><p>Intermediate bookkeeping is a particular field of money that normally has a particular research paper point. This is probably the hardest subject to compose as it requires a decent arrangement of basic reasoning and systematic capacities. In any case, having this kind of profession can be inconceivably rewarding.</p><p></p><p>Intermediate bookkeeping is normally a basic course of study that will show you the nuts and bolts. On the off chance that you are keen on the specialized side of this calling, at that point you may need to take a further developed class. Similarly as with most fields, having a little foundation in bookkeeping can go far in deciding your prosperity with this calling. Remember that in the event that you need to get effective in bookkeeping, you are going to should have the option to do a wide range of figurings and work on complex money related models.</p> <p></p><p>One of the best research paper themes for middle of the road bookkeeping is really called the asset report. At the end of the day, this will cover a decent arrangement of the measurable information that is utilized to make an expert bookkeeper's pay proclamation. The monetary record fundamentally considers all the various snippets of data identified with resources and liabilities. This incorporates such things as resource esteems, resources sold, advances, ventures, remarkable records, fiscal summaries, and so forth. Bookkeeping experts will ordinarily take a gander at these advantages and liabilities to perceive what they are worth.</p><p></p><p>Other look into paper themes for moderate bookkeeping are the fiscal summary and the benefit/misfortune explanation. This sort of budgetary data is fundamentally used to show an organization the genuine estimation of their advantages. With the correct apparatuses, you can without much of a stretch turn a benefit for any business owner.</p><p></p><p>Finally, look into paper points for transitional bookkeeping may incorporate different zones, for example, tax collection, the business structure, and the tax assessment from specific sorts of merchandise. There are numerous ways that you can consolidate these viewpoints into a report. For instance, a business should choose if they should record as a sole ownership or an organization. They will likewise need to choose what their assessments will be on every one of the exchanges that occur inside the business.</p><p></p><p>Also remembered for look into paper subjects for transitional bookkeeping are corporate fund. This is the zone of study that encourages the bookkeeper to decide the best possible pace of enthusiasm for a specific credit. In the event that an individual chooses to purchase a vehicle, they may need to make sense of the amount they can manage the cost of and fu rthermore the base installment that is satisfactory. They will likewise need to make sense of what a Visa organization will consider when they are talking about a loan.</p><p></p><p>Research paper themes for moderate bookkeeping can be very explicit and testing. Notwithstanding, for anybody that is hoping to get into this field, these are amazing themes to concentrate on. You should be set up to handle various parts of the calling, yet you should do this inside a particular system. For whatever length of time that you locate a decent, strong school to get your degree from, at that point you ought to have the option to get yourself an extraordinary vocation in this field.</p>

Dance as a Form of Cultural Expression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Unbiased Report Exposes the Unanswered Questions on Speech Writing

<h1> Unbiased Report Exposes the Unanswered Questions on Speech Writing </h1> <h2> Want to Know More About Speech Writing?</h2> <p>The hardest bit of composing any discourse is to move toward the most significant subject from a few different edges. On the off chance that you watch the previously mentioned tips, discourse composing will turn into some espresso. In numerous cases you're attempting to sell contemplations and ideas in a discourse. You don't should be concerned if don't have any thought regarding thinking of one. </p> <p>Recording and tuning in back to an introduction is the speediest way to deal with upgrade your capacities. Snap the catch underneath if you need an imitation of my discourse report format! As a matter of first importance, you need to comprehend what your point Is and who you will be conveying your discourse to. The most as often as possible happening and the least complex structure is an enlightening discourse. &l t;/p> <h2> The Key to Successful Speech Writing</h2> <p>While figuring out how to create a discourse it's significant that you note that addresses should be bright and energizing not exhausting and befuddling. Set desires before the discourse on what will be secured. Your great discourse is right now arranged for the enormous event! Regardless of whether you're composing a discourse for an honor you ought to get or it's a discourse for a wedding you should join in. </p> <p>Write the same number of drafts as you require, till you're fulfilled your discourse is exceptionally clear and convincing. Likewise be sure that the discourse doesn't go past as far as possible. With the web, your discourse can be discussed to various others. Composing addresses is a repetitive undertaking for some understudies and it needs a lot of time. </p> <h2> The Benefits of Speech Writing </h2> <p>Speech models and presentation discourse models are s een in the page to help you in the better information on discourse. On the off chance that you might want to figure out how to make a discourse, you will doubtlessly require a few methodologies and advices. A discourse is similar to a paper, then again, actually a discourse is proposed to be spoken, while an exposition is expected to be perused. Composing a discourse can be a major test, especially for specialized essayists. </p> <h2>Speech Writing - the Story </h2> <p>There are numerous self improvement guides that show you the most ideal approach to make your own talks. Most people surrender before they even start since they believe that they know nothing about approaches to form a discourse. Everybody needs to give a discourse sooner or later in their lives and most of individuals don't wish to. Most people adopt that strategy. nonetheless, it's exceptionally difficult to make an incredible discourse that route since it's excessively straight. </p> <p>You're on line addresses should comprise of open talking insights with the goal that you can loosen up realizing you're stating just the perfect things in just the right way. You may find that you end up discovering them. You're ready to get incredible help from the absolute best toast and speechwriting books which are promptly advertised. </p> <h2> Ok, I Think I Understand Speech Writing, Now Tell Me About Speech Writing! </h2> <p>Inexperienced speakers will meander aimlessly off point since they have not refined an undeniable message. You're using the data gave and allowing the crowd to make their own decision that is sufficient for the speaker since they simply need to discover the message out. To mentor new speakers, you may utilize your way with words and comprehension of discourse stream to help a speaker structure their substance in a compelling and captivating manner. There is a short rundown of what you should do when you set up any discourse . </p> <p>It's easy to compose a fabulous passage that doesn't have any hyperlink to what preceded or what follows. The secret to composing great addresses lies in utilizing a subject. In conclusion, endeavor to peruse so anyone might hear the content when you are composing on the grounds that a composed content doesn't mirror the genuine influential intensity of live discussion. Practice your tribute with a family member or a mate to obtain their input, so it's conceivable to alter in the event that it is basic. </p> <p>You may find that numerous independent company individuals in your territorial network need discourses composed consistently. In case you're another essayist and need to discover a composing administration it is conceivable to offer with insignificant rivalry, evaluate the broad media area. Numerous understudies want to buy discourse from organizations that give custom composing administrations. There is a variety of features which make it difficult for un derstudies to buy discourse from custom composing organizations. </p> <h2> What Everybody Dislikes About Speech Writing and Why</h2> <p>If don't have any involvement in discourses, at that point you won't generally see how it goes. You will probably discover there are as of now talks that were composed there. There are loads of such addresses promptly accessible on line. Truth be told, the most notable impromptu discourses in history are ones which were solid and steady ahead of time. </p> <p>In expansion, there are numerous eccentric thoughts that might be fused into addresses. Discovering you are introducing to another crowd than anticipated. The least difficult approach to start is by composing addresses. Conveying addresses gets the enthusiasm of the board extraordinarily if an individual is adroit and adept at doing this. </p>

Banking Concepts and Practices Free Essays

string(70) " found in the book ‘Arthashastra’ by Chanakya in the year 300 BC\." XITE, Gamharia Banking Concepts Practice [Paper 11: Elective II, Academic Session 2011-12] 1. Evolution of Banking: Bank-Meaning, Definition, Features Classification, Concept of Different Types of Banking System, Overview of Indian Banking System 2. Commercial Bank: Basic Concept of Commercial bank, Role of Commercial bank in Financial System, Credit Control by Central Bank 3. We will write a custom essay sample on Banking Concepts and Practices or any similar topic only for you Order Now Central Bank: Meaning, Functions, Methods of Credit Control 4. Monetary Policy: Meaning, Objectives and Instruments 5. Customer Relationship: Definition, Features of Contractual Customer Relation, Customer Orientation, Retail Banking 6. E-Banking: Concept, ATM, Core Banking, Virtual Banking, Electronic Payment System Reference Books: 1. Banking Law and Practice- P. N. Varshney 2. Indian Banking- P. Parameswaran S. Natarajan 3. Money, Banking International Trade- M. C. Vaish 4. Banking Concepts Practices- Shekhar Shekhar 5. Banking Concepts Practices- Canon Notes prepared by: Fr. Alex Mascarenhas SJ, Loyola Nivas, H-15, St Mile Road, Sakchi, Jamshedpur 831 001 INDEX | | |EVOLUTION OF BANKING |NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT | |MEANING OF BANKING |BILL OF EXCHANGE | |CLASSIFICATION OF BANKS |PROMISSORY NOTE | |SYSTEMS OF BANKING |CHEQUE | | |CROSSING ENDORSEMENT | |INDIAN BANKING: PROFILE | | |INDIGENOUS SYSTEM |BANKING PRACTICE | |MODERN FINANCIAL SYSTEMS |BANK ACCOUNTS | |CHANGING PROFILE |TIME DEPOSITS | |CHALLENGES AHEAD |LOANS ADVANCES | | |CHARGE CREATION | |COMMERCIAL BANK |TYPES OF SECURI TIES | |FEATURES |BILLS COLLECTION | |ROLE IN FINANCIAL SYSTEM |PAYING BANK | |MULTIPLE CREDIT CREATION |COLLECTING BANK | | |GRIVANCE REDRESSAL | |CENTRAL BANK | | |CONCEPT MEANING RETAIL BANKING | |FUNCTIONS | | |RESERVE BANK OF INDIA |BANKING SERVICES | |NEW TRENDS IN CENTRAL BANKING | | | |ANCILLARY SERVICES | |MONETARY POLICY | | |MEANING |E-BANKING | |OBJECTIVES | | |INSTRUMENTS |CONCEPT EVOLUTION | |TYPES OF MONETARY POLICIES |CORE BANKING | |RBI MONETARY POLICY |VIRTUAL BANKING | |LIMITATIONS |E-PAYMENTS | | |MERITS DEMERITS | |CUSTOMER RELATION | | |MEANING |APPENDIX | |NATURE OF RELATIONSHIP |MUTUAL FUNDS | |FEATURES |BANK NATIONALIZATION | |CUSTOMER ORIENTATION | | EVOLUTION OF BANKING A. MEANING OF BANKING: Banking was first associated only with the lending activity. The idea of accepting deposits from the public in order to lend it to others on credit developed much later. Modern banks have gone way beyond traditional banking and have added fee based financial as well as ancillary services to banking which are very much within the limits of their expertise. A1. DEFINITION: Dictionary gives multiple meanings of a BANK- †¢ It is a heap or storage of goods. †¢ It is the shallow edge of the sea. †¢ It is the raised edge of a river or a road. †¢ It is a blockage of sandbags to a flow of water. Though none of these explanations speak directly about financial dealings, all of them give a common meaning that it is a sort of CUSHION provided to PROTECT something. Hence, there can be a grain bank, a blood bank, a sperm bank, a question bank, a river bank, money bank, etc. The exact origin of the word bank is not certain. Some trace its origin to German word ‘Banck’ which means heap or mound, others trace it to Italian word ‘Banco’ which means heap of money while some others trace it to the French word ‘Banque’ which means a bench for keeping things. Jewish bankers and money changers transacted their business of lending and exchanging money on benches in the marketplace in Lombardy and so the bench became the banking counter. Bible has a reference to money changers who were transacting business on their benches inside the Jewish temple and Jesus throws their benches and scatters them. If a banker failed by losing all his money, his bench was broken up by the people which gave birth to the word ‘bankrupt’ Monetary banks derive their meaning from all the above concepts. They provide facility to the customers to ‘store’ their wealth and give ‘protection’ to it and in the mean time they lend it to others to ‘gain’ some returns. †¢ According to Kent, â€Å"bank is an organization whose principal operations are concerned with the accumulation of the temporarily idle money of the general public for the purpose of advancing to others for expenditure. †¢ According to Crowther, â€Å"bank is one that collects money from those who have it to spare or who are saving it out of their incomes and lends the money so collected to those who require it. † †¢ According to Hart, â€Å"banker is one who in the ordinary course of business honors cheques drawn upon him by persons from and for whom he receives money on current accounts. † †¢ According to John Paget, â€Å"no person or body corporate otherwise can be a banker who does not take deposit, does not take current accounts, does not issue and pay cheques and does not collect cheques for his customers. † All these definitions have described the meaning of a bank but have not given a precise definition. Banking Regulation Act of 1949 u/s 5(1) has given the meaning of banking as follows- â€Å"Banking means accepting for the purpose of lending or investment, of deposits of money from the public, repayable on demand or otherwise and withdrawable by cheque. † Hence, bank in the technical sense can be defined as â€Å"an institution that accepts refundable deposits for lending or investing. † The concept of offering fee based services has no direct connection to traditional banking; it evolved much later due to the financial expertise available with the banks. A2. HISTORY OF BANKING: The concept of banking is as old as the authentic history of humanity. ANCIENT WORLD: The system was started by the Babylonians before 2000 BC. The practice of granting credit was widely prevalent in ancient Greece and Rome. Credit by compensation and by transfer orders is traced to Assyria, Phoenicia and Egypt even before its development in Greece and Rome. EUROPE: Many European countries established public banks either for facilitating commerce or to serve the government. Begun as an office for transfer of public debt, The Bank of Venice [1157] is the most ancient bank. The Bank of Amsterdam was established in 1609 to meet the needs of the merchants of the city. It accepted all kinds of specie deposits to be withdrawn or transferred to another account later using a certificate valid for six months. These written orders in the course of time got transformed into modern day cheques. ENGLAND: English banking began with the London Goldsmiths who accepted customer’s valuables for safe custody and issued ‘payable to bearer’ receipts which in course of time enjoyed considerable circulation. Actual growth of private commercial banking began with the establishment of Bank of England in 1694. INDIA: The first reference to banking in India is found in the book ‘Arthashastra’ by Chanakya in the year 300 BC. You read "Banking Concepts and Practices" in category "Papers" He mentions about guilds of merchant bankers who received deposits and advanced loans. The traditional indigenous bankers and money lenders were active in India since time immemorial. The first bank in today’s understanding to be established in India was Bank of Hindustan in 1770. Unfortunately it failed subsequently. Presidency Bank established in 1806 which then became Imperial Bank and finally State Bank of India is the first successful bank in India. Co-operative credit banks started playing significant role since II world war. A3. FEATURES OF A BANK: Features of a bank are the services they offer to their customers. Traditional banks have just two features: accepting deposits and lending money on credit. Modern banks have introduced a third feature of fee based services. A3a. DEPOSITS are basically of two types- Demand deposits Time Deposits. Demand deposits are in the form of running accounts like Savings Bank A/c, NRE A/c, Current A/c and Overdraft A/c depositing or withdrawing money without any advance notice. On Savings Bank A/c and NRE a/c banks offer interest on the balance amount where as for an overdraft a/c they charge interest on the money overdrawn. Current A/c and the credit balance in Overdraft A/c fetch no interest to the account holders. All these accounts will have cheque book and passbook facility. Now one can do banking transactions from the comforts of ones own office or room or while traveling even without entering the bank premises, pay bills anywhere and anytime and draw cash from ATM day and night and even during holidays through e-banking. Time deposits are always accepted to mature on a due date. Banks give interest on time deposit. Longer time deposits usually [but not necessarily] fetch higher interest. All banks allow pre-maturity withdrawals of time deposits and give whatever interest is applicable for the duration the deposit was with the bank with or without a penalty interest for pre-maturity withdrawal. A3b. CREDITS can be further sub-grouped duration-wise or security-wise: Duration-wise credits can be short term for less than a year or medium term for one to three years or long term for beyond three years. Banks usually prefer short term credits as they give better liquidity. Long term credits are usually given for capital requirements. Customers are charged interest on credit which is little higher than the interest banks give on deposit. Security-wise credit may be secured, partially secured or clean. When credit is given against a collateral tradable security of at least equal value it is termed as secured credit. If the securities offered against the credit do not cover the credit amount completely then it is partially secured credit. If personal guarantees are offered instead of any tradable securities, it is a clean credit. Banks usually prefer secured credit to ensure the capital safety. A3c. FEE BASED SERVICES may or may not be linked directly to banking activities. These features are unique to commercial banks and are on offer because of the expertise they have and also because their primary aim is profit. Cooperative banks usually do not offer such services except cheque book and bill collection facility. Some of the fee based services offered by them are- Financial Services are those involving money through the customer’s accounts like Cheque, Bill Pay, Bill Collection, Debit Card, Fund Transfer, etc. Free availability of sufficient funds in the account is pre-condition for these services. †¢ Utility Services are those financial services which are provided by the bank to th e general public even without having an account in the bank like Foreign exchange, Bank Pay Order, Bank Drafts, Traveler Cheque, etc. Funds and the bank charges have to be provided at the time of availing these services. †¢ Agency/Fiduciary Services are those services in which the bank acts like an agent/trustee on behalf of its customers like Letter of Credit, Bank Guarantee, Originator/ Underwriter of Capital Issues, Safe Deposit Locker, Safe Custody, etc. Investment Services are those agency services where bank guides the customers in making investments outside the bank for higher returns like D-Mat A/c, Brokerage and Advisory Service. B. CLASSIFICATION OF BANKS: There are various types of banks depending on the purposes of their businesses. But such a classification may or may not be exclusive since some overlapping is always possible- B1. COMMERCIAL BANKS by their very name mean business and so perform all kinds of banking functions such as accepting deposits, advancing cr edits, offering fee based ancillary services including foreign exchange and foreign currency remittances. They are organized in the manner of joint stock companies. Their main aim is to maximize profit from their banking business. Hence, they have expanded their network through branches wherever there is a possibility of better banking business. In many developing countries like India, commercial banks are obliged to contribute to the economic growth of the country through various regulations of the regulatory authorities. These banks may be govt. owned, public sector or private sector or even foreign banks. Private sector and foreign banks vie with each other in providing personalized services in order to expand business. B2. FOREIGN EXCHANGE BANKS are specialized in foreign exchange and financing foreign trade in addition to the normal banking services. They also offer other information collecting services to their customers on foreign trade prospects, foreign agents, and foreign collaborators and provide foreign currency remittance facilities. Foreign exchange banks usually have their head offices outside the country. Their branch network is usually bare minimum; restricted only to big urban centers with great potential for foreign exchange business. B3. INDUSTRIAL BANKS are also known as development banks and are specialized in providing long term loans to industries for the purchase of assets. They are usually not into ordinary banking services; they basically underwrite shares and debentures of industries and also subscribe to them. Some of the industrial banks are- Industrial Finance Corporation of India-IFCI, Industrial Development bank of India-IDBI, Industrial Credit Investment Corporation of India-ICICI [now merged with ICICI Bank Ltd. ] and Small Industries Development Bank of India-SIDBI. These are more of finance companies set up by government than banks. B4. AGRICULTURAL BANKS like State Cooperative Banks-SCB, District Central Cooperative Banks-DCCB, State Cooperative Agricultural Rural Development Banks-SCARDB, Primary Cooperative Agricultural Rural Development Banks-PCARDB and Regional Rural Banks-RRB provide all types of agricultural credits to the farmers for their short term, medium term and long term agricultural needs. They also offer limited ordinary banking services that are required by the farmers. Land Development Bank of India-LDBI gives long term loans on mortgage of agricultural land and National Bank of Agriculture Rural Development-NABARD gives refinance to other institutions which give direct agricultural loans to the farmers. Both these banks do not provide retail banking services. B5. COOPERATIVE BANKS work on the principle of cooperation among a group of shareholding members usually confined to a small geographical locality and the purpose of their cooperation. Their activities are largely restricted to their own members. They do not come under the strict regulatory controls of Central Bank since they are separately covered under Cooperative Societies Act. But they do have regulatory norms to satisfy, though not of the same level as that of the commercial banks. Cooperative banks are basically of two types- Urban Cooperative Banks that cater to the needs of urban population and †¢ Rural Cooperative Banks which cater to the needs of the rural population. B6. SAVI NGS BANKS promote small savings and mobilization of resources. They may not lend on credit; they may invest the entire sum to produce returns enough to pay good interest to their deposit holders. They are very successful in Japan, Germany and India. Post Office Savings Bank, Employee Provident Fund and Public Provident Fund are some examples of Savings Banks. B7. INVESTMENT BANKS are financial organizations which assist business houses to raise funds for their long term capital requirements from the market hrough the sale of their shares and bonds. Hence, they certainly conduct other ordinary banking business in order to collect funds for their business. These banks act basically as middlemen or agents. They function in two ways- †¢ Originator- They act as originators of the capital issue by bringing out the new issue and managing it until the shares are finally allotted for a fee for the services provided by them. They have nothing to do with the gain or loss of the capital is sue which goes directly to the company. †¢ Underwriter- They under-write the entire capital issue for a mutually agreed price and re-issue the shares to the public for the market price. The entire gain or loss made in the process is the gain or loss of the bank and not of the issuing company. Commercial Banks are also eager to provide investment banking facilities since these are basically wholesale banking activities with definite sources of large gain in a short span of time with or without committing one’s own funds. B8. MERCHANT BANK is a loosely used term. Some merchant banks may neither be a merchant nor a bank. Merchant banks mainly deal with corporate financial advice such as share issue, capital re-construction, mergers and acquisitions. Merchant banks also accept deposits and are involved both in money market operations and foreign exchange dealings. They also manage funds on behalf of their clients. B9. CENTRAL BANK is not a commercial bank; it is the apex bank of a country which controls nation’s monetary and banking structures, like Reserve Bank of India. It is owned by the central government in most of the countries but not necessarily always. For example, in USA it is owned collectively by the member banks. Central banks work in the national interest in developing the nation’s economy. Central bank does not deal with ordinary banking activities. It issues and regulates currency, provides banking services only to the central government, the state governments and the member banks, keeps cash reserves of the member banks, holds gold reserves of the country and nation’s forex reserves, acts as clearing house and acts as a lender of last resort. C. SYSTEMS OF BANKING: There is no uniform system in commercial banking. They have evolved based on the needs of a particular place. Philosophically there are two banking systems- Capital based Western Banking System and Service based Islamic Banking System. Islamic banking system is the only banking system in the world that is totally fee based and does not pay or give interest. Islamic banks collect fees for all the services offered by them since giving or receiving interest is against the Islamic Law- Shariat. Most commercial banks follow capital based banking systems: they accept deposits from the public at lower interest rate and give out credit on higher interest. The difference in interest rate is their profit which is gained by from their capital. They also charge a fee for all the value added services rendered by them. In practical sense we come across three major western banking systems worldwide- C1. GROUP BANKING is commonly found in USA. It is a federal system favored mostly by banks in USA. Under this system, a group of banks come under a centralized management of a holding company may or may not be affiliated to a larger bank or any government controlled agency. Holding company exerts control over all the subsidiary banks though each subsidiary bank maintains its own distinctive identity. The group may also include non banking financial corporations. In some cases instead of a holding company, individuals or a group of individuals take the control over administration of the member banks through ownership of their stocks. Such a system is known as CHAIN BANKING. For all practical purposes, both mean the same except for their ownership pattern. MERITS- 1. Parent bank pools the resources and helps the member banks. 2. Large credits more than a member’s capital can be handled through consortium basis. 3. CRR, SLR and capital requirement is centrally maintained by the parent bank. 4. Parent bank provides service on research, legal matters and investments, reducing individual member bank’s cost. DEMERITS- 1. It is a step towards monopoly, not healthy from economic point of view. 2. Decline in business of one member in the group affects the entire group. 3. If the parent body is not a bank, it may divert funds to further its own interest. C2. UNIT BANKING system is an individualistic system also favored largely in USA. In this system each bank is a centralized unit without branches; it may have service centers like ATM at multiple convenient places or even a few branches within a strictly limited area. All functions of the bank are performed at one centralized place. For remittances they are linked through correspondent banks. MERITS- 1. Every type of banking service is available under one umbrella 2. It is competitive and highly efficient. It can take prompt decisions. 3. Continuity in personal relation helps in customer care. 4. Even unique local needs are addressed by this system. DEMERITS- 1. Being localized, it can not spread risk and its resources are limited. 2. They can not diversify services, can not have large scale operations 3. Mobilization of funds is limited to their own area and so fear of failure exists. 4. They have to depend upon their correspondent bank for remittances, increasing cost. 5. Very difficult to run unit banking in rural areas since rural resources are limited. C3. BRANCH BANKING system is followed almost universally. In this system banks will have their head office at one place and branches at multiple convenient places. Each branch functions like any other full fledged bank and yet is fully controlled by the head office. They even have specialized branches to take care of specific requirements of customers, like NRI branch, SSI branch etc. This is very convenient to the customers. In some branches even the weekly holiday is changed to suit the people of the area. MERITS- 1. This system can spread risk, diversify services, can have large scale operations. 2. It can have specialized branches for exclusive purposes. 3. They can move cash reserve from less required branch to more required branch. 4. Remittance through branch system is easy, cheap and efficient. 5. Brings uniformity in the functioning supported by centralized system. 6. There will be an efficient head office control and less fear of failure due to its size. DEMERITS- 1. Centralization of command delays decision making process. 2. Every branch may not be in a position to offer all banking services 3. Administration tends to be bureaucratic, sticking to the rules at the cost of the need. 4. More the branches, difficult will be monitoring and supervision 5. Unique local needs may not be well taken care of From the above analysis we can safely conclude that branch banking system is the best system and so is favored world over. NOTE: State Bank of India is planning to bring itself and its subsidiary banks with all their branches under one Holding Bank which will be like a Central Bank with full policy control over its member banks and yet with administrative freedom given to each of the member bank to maintain their unique identity. This will also be a group banking system with an important change that the holding company is a bank whose majority stake is held by the government. Hence, this system is going to combine the advantages of all the three systems discussed above. INDIAN BANKING: PROFILE In India, ancient scripts as old as ‘Manu Smriti’ deal with regulations on credit like- credit instruments, judicial proceedings on credits, renewal of commercial papers, interest on loans, etc. Chanakya’s Arthashastra refers to accepting deposits for lending. This was mainly money lending where as the modern concept of banking came to India with the colonial rulers. Though Chanakya’s Arthashastra speaks both about deposit and credit, it is basically money lending. INDIAN BANKING SYSTEM – AN OVERVIEW v v v INDIGENOUS SYSTEM BANKING SYSTEM NBFI v v v Indig. Banker Money Lender. ____ _v______ DFI NFFC MF. v Cooperative Scheduled v v Rural, Urban, LTCCS Coop Commercial v v v SCB, DCCB, PACS SCARDB, PCARDB Public, Private, Foreign, RRB v Nationalized Banks, SBI, SBI Group A. INDIGENOUS SYSTEM is the oldest system of banking in India. It is basically a business for profit controlled by a few upper caste communities. Hence, it got degenerated into highly exploitative system against the lower castes and accepted by the masses out of helplessness. A1. INDIGENOUS BANKERS are individuals or firms who lend money against securities- hundis, promissory notes and legal bonds which state the amount of loan, due date, rate of interest and penalty interest beyond due date. They may or may not accept deposits from the public. It is a monopoly of certain castes among Multanis and Marwaris, in the West, Gujratis and Bengalis in the East and Chettis and Brahmins in the South. The interest rates of these bankers range from 6% to 150% depending on the nature of the security. Many of them have trading interests and control the marketing of the borrower’s products. They operate mainly in big trading centers with their offices and branches. A2. MONEY LENDERS are individuals usually from Mahajan, Sowcar and Pathan communities. They do not accept deposits and their methods of business are not uniform. Others with surplus funds too are involved in money lending occasionally. Money lenders usually lend small amounts on personal security without any written agreement with prohibitive interest ranging from 75% to 300%, invariably quoted and collected on a monthly basis. They operate mainly among peasants and urban labor class. The lenders in both these categories are not interested in increasing productivity through credit. They are not even bothered about the principal amount as long as the interest keeps coming on time. Most of their credit goes for non-productive consumption activities. They are willing to give fresh credit to pay off the old credit with interest as it enhances their earning. There are enough cases where illiterates get cheated by them. Money lending now requires a govt. license and has a cap on interest rates. In spite of such restrictions, money lending business it still continues illegally among the low income groups because of easy access, absence of paper work and familiarity with the lenders. B. NON BANKING FIN. INSTITUTIONS or NBFI consist of development finance institutions, non-banking finance companies and mutual funds governed under SEBI. They do not come under direct RBI control like the commercial banks. B1. DEVELOPMENT FINANCE INSTITUTIONS: established by the central government for specific priority sector developmental activities. They are EXIM Bank, NABARD, NHB SIDBI. EXIM Bank derives its name from Export-Import and its main activity is direct lending by way of long term loans and investments in export and import activities. †¢ NABARD is abbreviation for National Bank for Agriculture Rural Development and is involved in refinancing banks and non banking financial institutions for agricultural and rural developmental activities. †¢ NHB stands for National Housing Bank refinancing banks and non banking finance institutions on housing credits. †¢ SIDBI is short form for Small Industries Development Bank of India and it extends refinance to banks and non banking finance institutions for small scale industries. B2. NON-BANKING FINANCE COMPANIES: come under the regulations and supervision of RBI since 1998 but not under the II schedule like the scheduled banks. They are private or public limited companies and are allowed by RBI to accept deposits and offer 1% higher interest than the banks. They give credit only for the specific activities for which they are established like- equipment leasing companies, hire purchase finance companies, investment companies, loan companies, housing finance companies, etc. B3. MUTUAL FUNDS: are trusts that accept funds from the investors and redeploy them both in equity market as well as non-equity securities in a pre-determined pattern made available to the investor in advance and fully share the accrued profits with the investors after deducting their legitimate expenses. Hence, gain from mutual funds depends on the types of securities purchased by them. Broadly speaking there are three types of Mutual Funds. Equity Funds invest at least 65% of their funds in various equities and may give superlative returns or make one lose one’s own money depending on the market situation. Debt Funds invest in non equity securities and give low but steady returns. Balanced Funds are combination of both equity debt funds. For a detailed discussion on Mutual Funds please see appendix at the end. C. BANKING SYSTEM consists of both cooperative and scheduled banks. C1. COOPERATIVE BANKS received momentum after the 2nd World War. They are formed by the cooperation of any group under the Co-op Societies Act. Such groups are largely localized and the success depends on their own expertise. Urban Co-op Banks catering to the needs of the urban population and Rural Co-op Banks such as State Co-op Banks and District Central Co-op Banks catering to the needs of the rural population fall in this category. Co-op Banks are not listed under the second schedule of RBI Act, 1934 but they come under RBI supervision separately. They are required to allocate 40% of their credit to the priority sector of the government like any other commercial bank, work within the jurisdiction of their state and are primarily into short term credit to its members. They are allowed to offer cheque book facility and interest 1% higher than commercial banks on deposits, but they do not offer all the banking and other ancillary facilities of a full fledged bank. All co-op banks/ credit societies have to be registered under Cooperative Societies Act of the respective states. They work on the basis of cooperation and can be established by any group of people by forming a co-op society and subscribing for their shares. The main difference between a co-op bank and a co-op credit society is that the former can receive deposit from general public and give cheque book facility but give credit only to the members where as the latter provides its services and benefits only to its members. Besides these, there are also Primary Agricultural Credit Societies, Primary Cooperative Agriculture Rural Development Banks and State Cooperative Agriculture Rural Development Banks in the cooperative sector. Cooperative banking structure, particularly the rural sector cooperative banking is quite complex in India. It can be broadly classified as follows- Urban Cooperative Banks alone have a single tier structure catering to all types of needs of the urban population through their branches in major cities spread all over the state, just like any other bank. Rural Cooperative Banks have three tier structures of delivery- State Cooperative Bank at the Apex level, District Central Cooperative Bank at the Intermediary level and Primary Agricultural Credit Societies at the Base level. Long Term Cooperative Credit Societies usually have two tier system- Primary Cooperative Agriculture Rural Development Banks at the base level and State Cooperative Agriculture Rural Development Banks at the state level. Some states have unitary system with State level banks working through their own branches and some other states have a mixture of both systems. C2. SCHEDULED BANKS are those which are registered as joint stock companies under Indian Companies Act and are also listed under 2nd schedule of the RBI Act, 1934. They are licensed by RBI to have branches all over India or even abroad and perform all banking activities including foreign exchange. They are required to lend 40% of their credit to the priority sectors of the government. They directly come under RBI regulations and supervision. RBI control over the scheduled banks is so efficient that we do not have any example where a scheduled bank has ever applied for liquidation since the inception of RBI. Scheduled banks are basically of two types- a. SCHEDULED COOPERATIVE BANKS are those cooperative banks with a large capital base and listed under the 2nd schedule of RBI Act of 1934. They can offer all banking facilities just like any other commercial bank. b. SCHEDULED COMMERCIAL BANKS are those private or public limited joint stock companies listed under the 2nd schedule of RBI Act of. They are further classified into 4 groups: Public Sector Banks, Private Sector Banks, Foreign Banks and Regional Rural Banks. b1. PUBLIC SECTOR BANKS are public limited companies whose majority shares are held by the government. Hence, their board of directors is fully controlled by the govt. and they come directly under govt. regulations. They are further classified into State Bank of India, Subsidiary Banks of SBI and Nationalized Banks. †¢ STATE BANK OF INDIA: The East India Company established three banks- Presidency Bank of Bengal in 1809, Presidency Bank of Bombay in 1840 and Presidency Bank of Madras in 1843 as bankers to the respective Presidency Governments. In 1921 they were amalgamated into Imperial Bank of India which also functioned as the central bank till RBI was formed in 1935. In 1955 it was nationalized and re-named as State Bank of India, popularly known as SBI. It also acts as the banker to the government wherever RBI does not have its offices. †¢ SUBSIDIARY BANKS OF SBI or SBI Group was formed by SBI with majority shareholding in them. State Banks of Saurashtra / Indore have merged with SBI in 2008 2010 respectively. State Banks of Mysore / Travancore / Hyderabad / Patiala / Bikaner Jaipur are in the process of merger. SBI European Bank is their foreign subsidiary bank. †¢ NATIONALIZED BANKS: 14 commercial banks were nationalized in 1969. They are- Allahabad Bank, Bank of India, Bank of Baroda, Bank of Maharashtra, Canara Bank, Central Bank of India, Dena Bank, Indian Bank, Indian Overseas Bank, Punjab National Bank, Syndicate Bank, United Commercial Bank, United Bank of India and Union Bank of India. 6 more were nationalized in 1980. They are Andhra Bank, Corporation Bank, New Bank of India, Oriental Bank of Commerce, Punjab Sind Bank and Vijaya Bank. b2. PRVIATE SECTOR BANKS do not have any govt. stake in their share holdings. Most of them are owned and controlled by business groups and follow aggressive corporate culture in their functioning to maximize their profits. The promotion prospects of their employees are directly linked to the business they promote unlike in public sector. Hence, they are far ahead of public sector banks in value added services, customer care and at the same time they also charge a host of hidden costs unlike the public sector banks. b3. FOREIGN BANKS are those banks whose head offices are located outside India and are allowed to do banking business under certain conditions. Prominent among them is lending 32% of their credit to the priority sector including export credit. Financing foreign trade remains their main business in India. They can fulfill their priority sector lending requirement by lending to priority sector export business and investing in priority sector government financial institutions. b4. REGIONAL RURAL BANKS were created to provide institutional credit and other facilities to the small and marginal farmers, agricultural laborers, artisans and small entrepreneurs in rural areas under 20 point Economic Program of the central government. 19 such banks were established in 1976, one in each state. They were given a jurisdiction to work, freedom to have branches or agencies within their jurisdiction and were put under the sponsorship of a nationalized bank. Ownership pattern of the capital was 35% with sponsor bank, 50% with the central govt. and 15% with the state govt. D. CHANGING PROFILE: Indian economic policy has been founded on the philosophy of economic growth and social justice. Indian banking sector has undergone a dynamic change over the years based on the needs of its economy. Most important among them are- REACH- The branch network of Indian banking system in so extensive, it covers almost all remote corners of India. It is one of the largest networks in the wo rld. †¢ DEVT- The diversification and development of our economy and its rapid growth is all because of our banking system’s credit to various priority sectors. These achievements have become a reality because of the changing profile of our banking system over the years. We shall discuss the major changes in the profile as under- D1. CHANGE IN SECURITY ORIENTATION: Traditionally personal creditworthiness of the borrower mattered a lot for any credit to be released. It meant, safety of the credit alone mattered for the banks and this safety came from the wealth the customers possessed. It effectively meant that only moneyed people could borrow from the bank. Now, banks have now changed their orientation from safety to purpose. Credit is now made available to make them creditworthy. Hence, technical competence of the borrower, operational flexibility and economic viability of the project has become more important than the security offered by the borrower. D2. CHANGE IN REGIONAL IMBALANCES: Private Banks opened their branches in urban locations because of the business potential. As a result Rural India remained unconnected by the banks. For example, pre-nationalization of banks there were only 12555 branches of banks in the entire country and they were located mainly in the urban centers. Post nationalization of banks number of branches has rapidly risen and as of Mar-09 it stands at 82408 branches. It is important to note that over 49% of these branches are now in the rural areas. It gives evidence that banking network has now spread uniformly to cover the entire nation without rural-urban bias. D3. CHANGE IN BANKING HABIT: As a natural corollary to the development in the field of branch banking, development of baking habits in India have grown at an unparalleled pace. Banks have successfully induced the customers to save a part of their earning in banks for the future. Some banks even sent their agents door to door to collect the savings. This helped the banks to diversify their lending portfolio considerably. If the deposits advances counted for 13% 10% of GDP respectively in 1969 they shot up to a whopping 50% 25% respectively in 2002. D4. CHANGE IN BANKERS ATTITUDE: A welcome change is the change in the attitude of the bankers. Earlier lending had a wholesale character coupled with the security of the credit. This attitude of the bankers made the banking facilities almost the exclusive prerogative of the elite classes. With the branches reaching the rural areas banking went retail and for the ordinary masses. Grant of credit no more became a matter of privilege; it became available for genuine production need based purely on technical norms. D5. CHANGE IN BANKING PRODUCTS: As the focus got shifted from wholesale to retail banking, private banks in particular came up with novel products to suit the needs of the retail customers, like- home loan, auto loan, credit card, etc. Pigmy deposit introduced by Syndicate Bank and imitated by others in its various forms for example aimed at pooling idle money and inculcate saving habits among people. Banks sent their agents door to door to collect the deposit money on a daily basis and without setting a minimum. Bank deposits grew substantially because of this scheme. Such innovative products were considered a tough proposition earlier by the banks due to the volume of operations involved. Now, computerization of banking system has removed this difficulty. Some of the banks have started offering even auto FD where amounts above a pre set limit gets converted automatically into FD to fetch higher interest and gets redeemed automatically when cheques are presented and the account runs short of balance. D6. CHANGE IN MODE OF BANKING: When the banking system was manually operated, almost all services were time consuming except depositing money into the account in the base branch where the account is maintained. Computerization of banking has made service faster; the entire country is made to appear like one branch and even the necessity to go to the bank during banking hours for transactions is becoming redundant. Cash can be drawn from ATM anytime, even during holidays and bills can be paid directly to the account from one’s own office. D7. CHANGE IN NON-BANKING ACTIVITIES: Many banks have diversified their activities beyond traditional banking activities like equipment leasing, hire purchase financing and factoring [acting as agents for the customers. ] A major step in this direction is the merger of ICICI with ICICI Bank D8. CHANGE IN APPROACH TO CREDIT: As a corollary to the shift from security orientation to purpose orientation, bank’s approach to credit also changed from lending to development in the recent past. Banks started lending for the purpose of industrial development, providing access to capital market and long term savings of the economy. They even started specialized branches to cater to the specific needs of the customers, like- NRI Branch, Overseas Branch, SSI Branch, Recovery Branch, etc. D9. CHANGE IN CUSTOMER SERVICE: Private Banks started giving more focus to customer care in order to win more business. They even gave free collection and delivery facilities to HNI customers. To cope with the increasing banking habit, RBI too came up with a Banking Ombudsman scheme to redress the customers’ complaints. E. CHALLENGES AHEAD: Banks have sacrificed some qualitative aspects of growth while expanding the banking system to achieve development and increase its reach. Prudent regulations have no doubt helped to ensure systemic stability, but enhanced efficiency would necessitate institutional changes in the internal functioning of the banks in the following fields- E1. ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE: Centralized structures work wonders under uniform conditions. As the banks diversify their business into the field of agriculture, rural development and other priority sectors they have to deal with different types of customers who need different kind of treatment. They can not afford to force the standard sophisticated practices on all the customers uniformly. For example, to finance rural development it is very much essential that banks evolve simple and meaningful procedures to the comfort of the rural folks. The most common complaint against banks is the under-financing and non-availability of timely credit to meet the borrowers’ need based requirements. Hence, banks must revamp their organizational structures by delegating power, decentralizing control and monitoring performance. E2. EXCELLENCE IN MANAGEMENT: Quality of management is another challenge in the face of fast expansion. Here are ten critical characteristics of a good bank management- 1. An open culture and extensive vertical and horizontal communication, 2. Strong shared values, 3. Profit performance as a value, 4. Customer focused business orientation, 5. Willingness to invest in new products, 6. Strong sense of direction and consistent leadership, 7. Commitment to recruit best persons, 8. Investment in training, 9. Product information system and 10. Strong credit risk management. E3. CORPORATE GOVERNANCE: There are instances where the boards have shown reluctance to ratify and adopt RBI circulated covenants on professinalization of bank boards. Corporate governance can not be enforced through regulations, it must spring from within. E4. EMPLOYEE COMPETENCY: Together with the change in organizational structure there is a need to increase employee competency also. When new entrants into the market like Mutual Funds are cutting into the business of the banks, contemporary banking is becoming more and more skill sensitive and information technology is throwing new challenges to the banking systems, employee competency has become all the more important to retain the existing business of the banks and expand it. E5. APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY: Well established banks are facing stiff competition from the new entrant banks in terms of use of appropriate technology that makes banking convenient. The established banks do use modern technology but are way behind in maintaining pace and are challenged by these new entrants in order to remain in business. E6. NONPERFORMING ASSETS: These are popularly known as NPA, the loans that do not perform- loans under litigation or bad loans that are doubtful of recovery. 6. 2% of loans of scheduled commercial banks were NPA and the public sector banks had to write off 42. 5% of the NPA as on 31. 3. 2002. It reflects on the quality of the loan portfolio. At 5% NPA, 17 out of 21 major banks in Japan were on the red. As per developed country standards it has to be around 2%. Hence, banks have to bring down the NPA ratio drastically. E7. DIRECTED CREDIT: NPA as discussed above is a direct result of the quality of the loan portfolio of the banks. The system of directed credit to priority sector has no doubt brought impressive performance in quantitative terms but qualitatively it has brought more loan delinquencies since the relation between credit expansion and productivity has become weak. Political interference in credit decision-making is pointed out as a factor. The populist phenomenon of ‘loan mela’ is certainly contrary to the professional appraisal of bank credit needs. What is required to improve the quality of loan is- 1. Serious appraisal of credit need, 2. Potential productive activity and 3. Effective post credit supervision. E8. RISK MANAGEMENT: Risk is intrinsic to any business; all the more to banking. Risks encountered by banks have increased with the diversity of banking business and growing sophistication of banking operations. The major risks encountered by banks are credit risk, interest rate risk, operational risk, forex risk and liquidity risk. While deregulation has opened up new vistas for banks to shore up more revenue, it has entailed greater competition and greater risks too. Hence, greater attention needs to be iven in strengthening of internal controls of risk management. E9. SICK INDUSTRIAL UNITS: Funds locked up in industrial sickness has reached a staggering 2% of the entire credit of the banking system in March 2000. When sick units have to be nursed for ‘social objectives’ banks should not be forced to suffer; actual stakeholders must bear the burden of nursing them. When sick units are nationalized for protecting the employment or they are public sector entities, govt. must give adequate compensation to the banks to cover their dues which rarely happens in reality. It is neither legitimate nor practical for the banks to nurse sick units in all circumstances. E10. PROFIT PLANNING: Banking can not run like other profit making business since excessive and unjustified profits can only be at the cost of development of the society so far as the lending rates push up the production cost and ultimately is passed on to the customer. At the same time strong operating profits allow for allocations to capital and reserves which are very much essential for any bank to maintain its competitive viability. This setback was realized in the 90’s when the nationalized banks posted declining profits. Nevertheless, concerted efforts by these banks improved the situation by 2002. Stiff competition makes the banks to work on thin interest rate margins but to increase their profitability, they have to increase their fee based non-fund services substantially. E11. CUSTOMER SERVICE: Though entry of new private banks no doubt has increased the quality of customer service, it is by and large confined to urban areas and to wealthy customers. Only the educated and wealthy customers have access to detailed information on all the banking facilities available. Customer care is very much wanting in public sector banks where the unionized employees are sure of not losing their jobs on this count. Efforts must be made to collect customer feedback on regular basis and remedy the defects pointed out if any, at the earliest wherever possible. E12. GLOBAL STANDARDS: Computerization has revolutionized in banking in India. But it has not yet made much progress in expanding it beyond the ational boundaries. Not many branches of Indian banks are found outside India. Just like its progress in Information Technology and software, India has to make good progress in the banking sector internationally since allocation of capital can not be bound by geographical bound aries. COMMERCIAL BANK A. FEATURES: Commercial banks are private or public limited joint stock banking companies registered under Indian Companies Act. There are three distinct features of a commercial bank- they accept DEPOSITS on lower cost and give CREDIT on higher cost and the cost difference between deposit and credit is their GAIN. [For more details refer features of a bank] Its capacity to earn profits depends on its investment policy which in turn depends on the manner in which it manages its investment portfolio. Portfolio management refers to prudent management of a bank’s profit, liquidity and safety. But most commercial banks have gone way ahead of their basic functions introducing a host of fee based ancillary financial services in order to maximize their profits. Thus a commercial bank now may be defined as â€Å"an institution that accepts deposits from the public on lower cost and lends it on credit on higher cost as well as offers ancillary services for a fee in order to increase its profits. † B. ROLE IN FINANCIAL SYSTEM: Commercial banks strive to earn a profit. At the same time their entire business of credit depends on public money deposited with them. Hence, they can not afford to risk public money just to increase their own profits. It is common knowledge that national level bank strikes throttle the lifeline of the nation’s economy and inflict heavy losses on the GDP. The significance of banks’ role in the financial system must be understood in the words of Walter Leaf, who says â€Å"The banker is the universal arbiter of the world’s economy† Commercial banks have to play a major role in three distinct areas- †¢ Providing fiscal liquidity to the financial system, †¢ Giving capital protection to the economy and †¢ Speeding up economic growth of the nation. B1. FISCAL LIQUIDITY: By fiscal liquidity we mean the capacity to produce cash on demand. The most important role of any bank is to provide liquidity to the financial system. Banks pool around idle money in small pockets through their wide spread branches into a large capital and redeploy it wherever needed. For better management of credit, banks like to have as much funds in liquid as possible while maximization of gain is possible only by deploying maximum available funds on credit. Both are important for the bank. Hence, bank has to strike an effective balance between them so that neither its profitability suffers nor the liquidity of the market is affected. Liquidity of the assets of the bank is planned in three stages- a. CASH is the most liquid asset. But it is an idle asset earning no returns for the bank. Yet certain percent of deposits must be always kept in reserve with the Central Bank in addition to cash in hand to meet immediate withdrawal of deposit. This is known as Cash Reserve Ratio or CRR. It is decided by the Central Bank. b. CALL MONEY is the investment in Money Market, Bond Market and Reverse Repo. # Money Market securities include short term securities like Certificate of Deposit [CD] of banks, Commercial Papers [CP] of companies, treasury bills of the govt. which give stable but low returns and long term govt. securities whose yield depend on the interest scenario. Bond Market securities include Medium Term as well as Long Term bonds of any banks or companies tradable in the secondary bond market. They are bought and sold at discount or premium and hence, their yield also depends on interest scenario. # Reverse Repo is the system through which RBI borrows from commercial banks to abs orb excess liquidity at lower interest rate. These funds are made available to commercial banks through bills repurchase under repo system on a little higher interest. These securities are the next best liquid assets but the returns from these securities are low. But it is important to select only those securities which give a fairly stable return. These securities can easily be liquidated in the Market with short notice. RBI prescribes a Statutory Liquidity Ratio or SLR for banks by which banks have to maintain certain percent of their deposits as liquid assets. c. CREDIT and investments give maximum gain to the bank but they are the least liquid. Hence, these assets should be created only in required proportion, never as a priority. Among them, short term credits are preferred by banks over long term credits for the sake of liquidity. B2. CAPITAL SAFETY: Commercial banks strive to earn profit. But this must be done through prudent ways without risking the deposits of their customers. They have an important role to play in the capital protection. Hence, 1. Protection of deposits must be the top priority for the banks. Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation set up by the govt. gives guarantee only up to Rupees one lakh per customer in case a bank fails and has to be closed down. 2. Banks must avoid investing in equity related instruments or giving loan for speculative business since equity market weakens capital safety to a large extent. This is required to increase stability of the capital. 3. Banks have to use self restraint in their credit to other volatile businesses like real estate, film industry, etc. Similarly they must be extra cautious while accepting volatile securities as surety for credit. 4. Banks must restrict long term credits and investments to a small percent since capital safety in short term credits is higher than the long term credits. 5. Before giving clean loans, banks must have a thorough reality check on the creditworthiness of the borrowers to repay the loan on time. 6. Banks must maintain a fair margin between their interest rates on deposits and credits. B3. ECONOMIC GROWTH: Banks have a greater role to play in the economic growth of the nation through economic development of all the sectors. Hence, they must provide more credit to developmental and productive activities than non-productive or consumption oriented activities. Basically there are three types of developmental activities- Large capital based corporate activities, medium or small capital based priority sector activities and export activity. a. CORPORATE SECTOR- While funding developmental activities, banks find it easy to provide credit to large capital based profit making corporates in industry trade since timely repayment of credit received by them with interest is almost guaranteed. Funding is required not only for corporates but also for other sectors like industry, trade, service, infrastructure, transport, housing, power, finance, technology, etc and the banks can not overlook one sector at the expense of the other. Besides, corporate sector companies also have the capacity to increase its capital base or raise funds from the open market by issuing their own bonds. In other words they do not depend heavily on banks for their capital requirements where as others heavily depend on banks. Hence, banks must use their prudence while deciding percentages for corporate credit. Large capital companies, particularly industry contribute to the economic growth of the nation not only by increasing production but also by increasing job opportunities. But their main drawback is that they are basically profit oriented and development is a byproduct of their activity. They are reluctant to venture into non-profit sectors that are essential for a balanced growth of economy. b. PRIORITY SECTOR- For all-round and real development there are certain priority sectors of the nation that require funding assistance by the banks. They are- infrastructure development like housing, rail and road construction, power, transport, etc. as well as small scale industry, trade, technology, agriculture, etc. From the profit perspective these priority sectors may not be always lucrative. It will not be always easy for these sectors either to increase their capital or borrow from open market; they depend heavily on banks for their capital requirements. RBI has mandated 40% of the total credit of all cooperative scheduled banks and 32% for foreign banks towards priority sector lending. Banks are allowed to invest in special bonds or investment instruments of these sectors to meet these requirements. c. AGRICULTURE SECTOR is surely a super priority sector. It must attract special attention of the banks since self sufficiency in agriculture has to be a top priority of any nation. Agricultural production is commercially unprofitable at least in Indian context. Small and medium farmers produce just enough to sustain since their personal labor in agricultural production gets them no returns. Any other production can wait, not food; it has to be produced proportional to the population irrespective of the cost. For the same reason, governments are providing subsidy and refinance facilities for agriculture. Banks must ensure that the government benefits really reach the medium and small farmers. d. EXPORT SECTOR is not an exclusive sector like corporate or priority sector. It can pervade both corporate as well as priority sectors. Economies of the world are so interdependent that each country must have enough reserves in the currencies of other countries to pay the bills for supplies received from those countries. In its absence they end up in raising foreign debt which in turn has a cost by way of interest; or else they end up in depleting nation’s gold reserves. If a country depends on foreign supplies, it must give high priority to exports to that country to strengthen their balance of payment. In such a situation banks must step in to provide credit to export activities in a preferred manner to increase county’s reserves in that currency. C. MULTIPLE CREDIT CREATION: There are two views on whether banks can create credit- †¢ One view held by Walter Leaf is that banks can not create money out of thin air. They can lend what they have in cash. †¢ Another view held by Hartley Withers is that banks can create credit by opening a deposit every time they advance a loan. It is interesting to know that in an effort to maintain lowest possible idle cash, banks end up in increasing the money in circulation without increasing tender cash currency while creating credit! In fact, credit creation is one of the most important functions of a commercial bank. They increase the purchasing power of people. Let us see how does this happen. C1. METHOD: When bank gives a loan it pre-supposes that bank has cash through deposits. From the deposit bank gives loan which in turn gets deposited in the bank account. It creates an asset as well as a deposit with the bank. The beneficiary customer can issue cheques for payments in addition to the existing customers who have originally deposited the money. Thus money available in circulation superficially becomes more than the actual tender cash currency. This is the view of practical bankers. Concrete Example: Let us presume that our country has only one bank B and all the citizens are heavily into banking making the cash requirement of B just 10%. B gets total demand deposit of R. 10000 and that is the only currency in circulation in our country. Balance sheet of B will read as follows: |LIABILITIES |ASSETS | |Deposits 10000 |Cash in Hand 10000 | |TOTAL 10000 |TOTAL 10000 | B has to maintain 10% of its deposit of 10000 which is 1000 as cash reserve. It implies that B can give 9000 as loan. It creates an additional deposit as it is released to the deposit account while creating a credit of 9000 and the new balance sheet will read thus: LIABILITIES |ASSETS | |Deposits 19000 |Cash in Hand 10000 | | How to cite Banking Concepts and Practices, Papers